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Atomicity of transactions is an important issue in building a distributed database system If a transaction runs across two sites, unless the system designers are careful, it may commit at one site and abort at another, leading to an inconsistent state Transaction commit protocols ensure such a situation cannot arise The two-phase commit protocol (2PC) is the most widely used of these protocols The basic idea behind 2PC is for each site to execute the transaction till just before commit, and then leave the commit decision to a single coordinator site; the transaction is said to be in the ready state at a site at this point The coordinator decides to commit the transaction only if the transaction reaches the ready state at every site where it executed; otherwise (for example, if the transaction aborts at any site), the coordinator decides to abort the transaction Every site where the transaction executed must follow the decision of the coordinator If a site fails when a transaction is in ready state, when the site recovers from failure it should be in a position to either commit or abort the transaction, depending on the decision of the coordinator The 2PC protocol is described in detail in Section 1941 Concurrency control is another issue in a distributed database Since a transaction may access data items at several sites, transaction managers at several sites may need to coordinate to implement concurrency control If locking is used (as is almost always the case in practice), locking can be performed locally at the sites containing accessed data items, but there is also a possibility of deadlock involving transactions originating at multiple sites Therefore deadlock detection needs to be carried out across multiple sites Failures are more common in distributed systems since not only may computers fail, but communication links may also fail Replication of data items, which is the key to the continued functioning of distributed databases when failures occur, further complicates concurrency control Section 195 provides detailed coverage of concurrency control in distributed databases The standard transaction models, based on multiple actions carried out by a single program unit, are often inappropriate for carrying out tasks that cross the boundaries of databases that cannot or will not cooperate to implement protocols such as 2PC.

27:

The McGraw Hill Companies, 2001

The appliance integrates CSD features into dynamic access policies (DAPs) Depending on the appliance configuration, the security appliance uses one or more user attribute values, along with optional AAA attribute values, as conditions for assigning a DAP to a user CSD features supported by the user attributes of DAPs include the OS of the user PC, prelogin policies, results of a Basic Host Scan, and Endpoint Assessment The DAP then provides (or denies) network access to resources at the level that is appropriate for the end-point AAA attribute value DAPs you can define include host scans and prelogin assessments You can have the CSD software perform the following: Basic host scan user PC Identifies the OS and patches/service packs applied on the

$15,000 x 100 = 20% $750,000

Alternative approaches, based on persistent messaging for communication, are generally used for such tasks When the tasks to be carried out are complex, involving multiple databases and/or multiple interactions with humans, coordination of the tasks and ensuring transaction properties for the tasks become more complicated Work ow management systems are systems designed to help with carrying out such tasks Section 1943 describes persistent messaging, while Section 242 describes work ow management systems In case an organization has to choose between a distributed architecture and a centralized architecture for implementing an application, the system architect must balance the advantages against the disadvantages of distribution of data We have already seen the advantages of using distributed databases The primary disadvantage of distributed database systems is the added complexity required to ensure proper coordination among the sites This increased complexity takes various forms: Software-development cost It is more dif cult to implement a distributed database system; thus, it is more costly Greater potential for bugs Since the sites that constitute the distributed system operate in parallel, it is harder to ensure the correctness of algorithms, especially operation during failures of part of the system, and recovery from failures The potential exists for extremely subtle bugs Increased processing overhead The exchange of messages and the additional computation required to achieve intersite coordination are a form of overhead that does not arise in centralized systems There are several approaches to distributed database design, ranging from fully distributed designs to ones that include a large degree of centralization We study them in 19

End-point assessment Looks for antivirus, antispyware, firewall software, and the appropriate definition updates Advanced end-point assessment With the appropriate license, CSD can update the required security software on the user s PC